Cultural Assimilation Essay

With globalization and people’s living quality advancing dramatically, every year, American universities welcome tens of thousands of international students from all over the world. The land of freedom and justice has opened its doors to those who seek new options and better opportunities and sometimes it asks for certain changes and adjustments fir those who come to study aboard. When these international students pursues higher education in US, fulfilling their life experience and learning something new from American culture, they too bring with them elements of international experience to an American university. Taking up a considerable portion of student population in the university, international students face difficulties to assimilate with local students, particularly in terms of linguistic and cultural differences. International student struggles to become one with the world around him. Some popular cultural studies experts believed it is best for students from all over the world who come to the United States and lose their cultural identity and â€Å"melt† into or assimilate into the American culture. Assimilation occurs in many different ways in our universities, and it is unfortunately, a part of life that we all international students have to learn to accept, no matter the consequences. According to various critics, the process of assimilation occurs in two distinct forms: Language and Culture. My paper will demonstrate the distinction between these two types of assimilation, arguing that language assimilation is necessary, but cultural assimilation can be problematic or damaging. I, being an international student feel that most important aspect of assimilation that an international student faces is language. In American society, learning to speak English properly is a crucial factor and is a form of assimilation. However, people who have decided to come to America to study have found it rather difficult to assimilate into American society for several reasons. International students are forced into an English – speaking classroom and expected to assimilate to the local language with very little help of the educators. The educators are not be blame, the demand for teachers is extremely high and the teachers we have fill the gaps, whether they share a language with their students or not. Linguistic assimilation is important for international students but they should keep in mind that they should not completely melt in other language, which results in eradication of their cultural language. This situation is perfectly portrayed by Salman Rushdie in his essay â€Å"‘Commonwealth Literature’ doesn’t exist† that discusses the conflicts in India over the English language. Salman Rushdie in his essay â€Å"‘Commonwealth Literature’ doesn’t exist† discusses the conflicts in India over the English language. Some in India see English as the language of British imperialism and believe that it shouldn’t be used. Others disagree because the language that is proposed to replace English in everyday use is Hindi, which has strong connections to religion, which are not universally accepted. Rushdie states that this ideological divide is mostly between the north and south of India. He sums up his position by saying, â€Å"†¦it is completely fallacious to suppose that that there is such a thing as a pure, unalloyed tradition from which to draw† (pp. 2541). Rushdie believes that language is an essential part of expr essing culture. He explains that, though Indian and British literature are written in English but they are distinct from one another and that just because they share a common language doesn’t diminish the value of the Indian culture. Rushdie acknowledges the growing importance of global trade and that English is well suited to serve as its communication medium. There is essential technical and scientific vocabulary that is used regularly in international exchanges that have no analog in local languages, such as Hindi. He believes that India needs to continue to embrace English, in order to remain competitive in the global community. Rushdie’s idea of embracing language that is common in the society perfectly exemplifies that international students should embrace a common language which is common in the university in order to stay in competition with home students and communicate their ideas. I have personally experience this situation in my university. So, in order to express thoughts, we (international students) will have to learn a common medium of communication. But learning a different mode of communication should not result into extinction of their cultural language. Rushdie tries to portray that international students should not completely evaporate into the new language and forget about their own mother tongue. We should assimilate into new language but should always respect their cultural language more then other Languages, as according to him â€Å"language is an essential part of expressing culture†. Linguistic assimilation as Rushdie shows often comes from coercion and force from outside, but can be necessary for simple survival. This argument is perfectly exemplified by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o in his essay â€Å"Decolonizing the mind† (1986) who tells us of when he was a grade school student in Kenya. The British declared marshal law over the country in the middle of the last century and in an attempt to curb the rebellion and insurgency, they decreed that English was to the sole language spoken. Suddenly Ngugi had to learn English and couldn’t speak the language of his people at school. These experiences shaped Ngugi opinions about the role that language fills. He is of the opinion that language serves two distinct purposes. One is for communication (Pg. 3). He gives the example of how the different cultures in eastern Africa use Swahili to communication with among each other but use their own language when communicating among their own kind. The other role it fills is that of a medium to express ones culture. Different culture tailors different language to convey and pass down its traditions (Pg. 4). Ngugi argument about Language serves two distinct purposes is true for International students as they use â€Å"English† language as a common medium of communication whereas use their â€Å"mother tongue† as a medium of expressing their culture. â€Å"What a common language does for one person, it does for all society†, this is perfectly illuminated in an article from international journal on Minority and group rights. According to article, â€Å"Effective participation in politics as well as the market economy requires t he development of common vernacular expressions, the free flow of information, and established codes of communication. All of these exchanges are enhanced when individuals speak the same language†. The critic of the article, Chih-Yu Shih says that if fixed proportion of population does not speak the common language, the reach of the state and the market will, in turn, shrink. This is both because communication from one language to another can translate into different meanings and because different language structures themselves reflect diverse perspectives proportion of the population cannot speak the national language, the reach of the state and the market will, in turn, shrink. This is both because communication from one language to another can translate into different meanings and because different language structures themselves reflect diverse perspectives of modernity. To learn a different language is to learn a different lifestyle., international students will have to learn different languages in order to be in reach of state. International Students studying and competing with the local will need to communicate with them, which is only possible if they have a common mode of language. So, in order to remain in touch with the local students and professor, students will have to learn language, which is common. After going through the essays of Rushdie’s, Ngugie and Chih-Yu Shih, we could say that language assimilation makes sense but authors like Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz and Richard Rodriguez says that cultural assimilation is also important. They think that cultural assimilation is very important part of linguistic assimilation as â€Å"Language express cultural†. According to them, one’s traditions such as cultural traditions also have an effect on the willingness and on the degree to which one assimilates. Few international students have found that certain customs like social behaviors which may surprise, offend or offend others; eating food which may seem heavy or bland compared have not been accepted in American culture and might even be condemned. A student who has different traditions than Americans may be frowned upon and may be discriminated against because of the difference. I had experienced this situation as I was discriminated in my folklore class by my follow student. After experiencing this, a question came in my mind that why on a practical level it’s useful to assimilate but on an ethical level, it’s questionable? Sacrificing one’s traditions is a problematic concept even if it means that someone could blend into mainstream culture. International students will have to stick to there own cultures and tradition while assimilating. But this is not the case every time! Some students while assimilating forget about his own cultures and traditions and easil y jolt into others cultures. Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz states a similar situation in her essay â€Å"Hispanics in America†. She reveals the social position of the Hispanics in American society. She says that instead of letting Hispanics follow their own culture and traditions, they are forced to follow the lifestyles of Americans. As only an â€Å"American way of life† existed, Hispanics had to follow the same path of that of the white folks, but also were rarely competing with the dominating white race. Though the Hispanics are the biggest minority group in American society today, their native language and other cultural aspects were scornfully ignored according to Isasi-Diaz, which made assimilation a difficult task for Hispanics. Similarly argument is state by Richard Rodriguez who discusses about culture in America. Rodriguez says, â€Å"I am in favor of assimilation. I am not in favor of assimilation. I recognize assimilation.† By making these statements, Rodriguez is saying that he accepts what is happening in regards to culture in America. While he isn’t completely for or again st what is going on, and he isn’t even trying to change it, he is accepting it and working with it. While saying this he doesn’t mean that racial and ethnic distinctions do not matter anymore in America, he thinks that differences are becoming a part of everyday life and they are just so common now that it really isn’t such a big deal†. In this essay, Rodriguez states, â€Å"I do think distinctions exist.† Throughout the rest of the essay, Rodriguez goes into great detail of how he understands distinctions exist and how it is changing America. So, this is evident from both the essay that international students will have to blend into America culture in order to compete with American folks in the universities. But blending should not mean that completely giving up their original culture. It means that assimilating into different culture with maintaining the same love for original culture. In conclusion, it is wise to note that both forms of assimilation is adopted by international assimilation in some or the other way. Few international students have over years adopted their â€Å"host† culture’s language, while maintaining their own traditions, customs and values. This common form of communication can also present more opportunities for cross-cultural understanding. International students get to learn many things if they can communicate in a common language. In terms of bilingual education: bilingual education provides the opportunity for a student to use the language that they have grown up with in school while learning another. This permits the student to retain and embrace their language and by extension the culture associated with it. As an old Czech proverb states, â€Å"learn a new language and get a new soul†.

When to Consider a Single-Instance Erp Strategy

Reproduction of this publication in any form without prior written permission is forbidden. The Information contained herein has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable. Garner disclaims all warranties as to the accuracy, completeness or adequacy of such information. Although Garter's research may discuss legal issues related to the information technology business, Garner does not provide legal advice or services and its research should not be construed or used as such.Garner shall have no liability for errors, omissions or inadequacies in the information contained herein or for Interpretations thereof. The opinions expressed herein are subject to change without notice. WHAT you NEED TO KNOW Adopting a single-instance, single-vendor enterprise resource planning strategy can deliver benefits, but it does not make sense for every organization. It should only be undertaken If you have a good business case for the project and it matches most or all of Garter's single-instance success factors.If the challenges balance or outweigh the success factors, then you should address organizational issues before proceeding. If this Is not feasible, then consider Illimitableness consolidation or a tiered business application strategy. ANALYSIS Most large multinational organizations have a heterogeneous application portfolio hat has built up over time. The portfolio often is made more complex by tactical purchasing and merger and acquisition activity.Senior executives in such organizations are attracted to the idea of standardizing on applications from a single enterprise resource planning (ERP) vendor because of potential operational cost savings and reduced complexity of the IT landscape (see Note 1). Vendor consolidation is often a first step toward instance consolidation. ; A single instance of an application can run all operating companies on a common process template, a ingle release AT ten application Ana a giggle copy AT ten applications dataset, using a cons olidated technical infrastructure.A single-instance strategy can drive cost reductions in several areas, including integration, interfaces, training, support and hardware. In addition, potential benefits may be found in process improvements, better data consistency and improved visibility of information. However, adopting a single-instance, single-vendor ERP strategy is not a task to be undertaken lightly, because it can create disruption in enterprise operations and often involves replacing some systems that are favored by users.Even if the business case appears to support the deployment of a single-instance ERP solution, there still may be significant obstacles to overcome. Certain types of organizations will find it more difficult to realize the benefits of a single-instance ERP strategy because of their culture and infrastructure. See Table 1 to determine whether single-system ERP might work for your organization. Rank yourself against each of the categories. If you have mainly (or exclusively) success factors, then a single-instance ERP strategy is more likely to be successful. Table 1 .Single-Instance ERP Success Factors and Challenges Enterprise Profile Business Model Corporate Culture and Policy Definition Geographical Concentration Success Factors Single primary core business with similar business processes Centralized with strong corporate head office; policy dictated at corporate level and globally enforced Company aspires to operate as a single global company, and operations, sales and marketing are concentrated in a single geographical region Stable, unlikely to undergo dramatic growth or downsizing Challenges Diversified group with wide range of business processes Decentralized tit autonomous business units; policy decided at the business-unit level Company operates as a multinational company, and operations, sales and marketing are distributed globally Dynamic, growing rapidly or downsizing significantly Business Environment publication Date: 28 September 2005/AD Number: GO 30366 2005 Garner, Inc. And/or its Affiliates. All Rights Reserved.Page 2 of 6 Merger, Acquisition and Divestiture Status Established ERP Systems Technology Environment Acquiring smaller entities that are easily absorbed into the corporate culture Highly likely to be acquired or merge with a company of a similar size (or larger); vesting encore businesses Diverse, with an even spread from potential single- system suppliers Architecture and technology are decided at the business-unit level Elemental mummer, wilt majority AT systems Trot likely single-system vendor Enterprise-level architecture with similar technologies Source: Garner (September 2005) Note that the scope of this analysis is limited to the processes automated through traditional ERP systems, such as financial, HRS, procurement, inventory management, production planning and order management. Single-instance strategies are typically noninsured first in the ERP domain because these processes are more internally focused and homogeneous, and have less impact on competitive differentiation. Suitability of a single-instance strategy in other domains, such as customer relationship management (CRM), product life cycle management (PLUM) and supply chain management (SCM), should be assessed following a similar process. However, with CRM, PLUM and SCM, organizations are even less likely to meet the criteria in Table 1 and will typically discover that a single-instance strategy doesn't align with the business strategy.By implication, even if a single-instance ERP environment is successfully created, most organizations will have to support multiple instances of peripheral systems. Enterprise Profile Elements ; Business Model: Organizations in service industries such as software or financial services will find adoption of single- system ERP easier than those with a diversified business model, because the ERP adoption will primarily affect their back-office administrative functions. Process changes in these areas will have less impact on revenue-creating activities and, therefore, are lower risk than changes in operational areas such as manufacturing and logistics operations.Corporate Culture and Policy Definition: Organizations that operate in a decentralized manner with highly autonomous business units may find these operations unwilling to release control of local systems to a central IT function. If there is a culture of local decision making, then business-unit executives may not be willing to accept a decision that is mandated from the corporate head office. Geographical Concentration: Companies that aspire to operate as global companies (operate on a common set of business processes across the globe) are well- positioned to achieve a global single instance, because they align the IT strategy with he business strategy.Companies operating as multinationals (have a unique set of business processes for local markets, particularly sales and marketing, and SC M), will have difficulties running their international businesses on a common system. Also, organizations that are physically concentrated in a single geographical region will find it easier to achieve a single instance, because support and operations of the system take place in a narrow range of adjacent time zones. The need to support a single instance around the clock creates issues with available support windows for upgrades and maintenance, and possibly network-related performance and availability issues.Business Environment: A single-instance ERP strategy may not be appropriate for organizations that face significant change. Implementation of a single-instance system may be thrown into disarray if there is a significant change of direction in the business Page 3 of 6 (for example, a manufacturer decides to sell its manufacturing operations and focus instead on design and logistics services). ; Merger, Acquisition and Divestiture Status: This aspect of the general business situ ation can have a major impact on a single- instance strategy. Organizations that are likely to acquire or merge with entities of a similar size may find their investment in a significance strategy compromised if they merge with organizations that use different ERP systems.Established ERP Systems: If the ERP system from a potential single-instance vendor is already used in the majority of the organization, then there may be little resistance to a wider deployment. Many organizations have initially implemented multiple instances of a single ERP system are now considering instance consolidation. However, if there is no nominate provider, then a single-instance strategy will face resistance, because some users are likely to fight to retain their â€Å"much loved† locally implemented systems from â€Å"their† vendors. Technology Environment: Similar challenges may arise if there is no common technology environment and enterprise architecture in place.A single- instance stra tegy requires the adoption of a specific technology environment (operating system, database, middleware and other IT infrastructure), and organizations that already have an enterprise architecture in place will find it easier to implement a single-instance approach. When the technology environment is defined at the business-unit level, local IT functions may resist moving away from their architecture to that which is required to support the single-instance strategy. Determining Who Drives the Initiative Often, instance consolidation initiatives are driven by the IT organization on the basis of simplification of the application landscape, and the IT technical and support infrastructure. Table 1 shows that five out of the seven success factors are within the business domain and entirely outside the control of the IT organization.This underscores the point that instance installation projects should primarily be business-driven projects, with a business case solidly based on business be nefits. Without understanding, sponsorship and commitment at the senior business management level, the project is doomed to fail. The IT organization plays a critical role in educating the business units, and planning and executing the project; however, it does not own the project. What to Do If the generalness outlawed ten success Factors organizations considering giggle-alliance ERP that find the challenges outweigh the success factors have other options: 1 . Consider a limited ERP vendor and infrastructure consolidation strategy, without moving to a single-instance consolidation.This strategy will enable organizations to achieve some efficiency improvements in the IT organization by consolidating some of the operating and support infrastructure of the ERP systems. However, the strategy will not realize the full benefits of a single-instance system. This strategy may be suitable for organizations that are diversified and decentralized in nature, operate in a highly dynamic market environment and consider IT costs to be a significant factor. A common approach is to adopt vendor consolidation with some level of instance consolidation (for example, regional or divisional instances). 2. Adopt a tiered business application strategy (see â€Å"How to Approach Tiered Business Applications†), where specific applications are adopted to address the needs of decentralized business units.Page 4 of 6 3. Address the organizational issues that are creating the challenges prior to implementing the single-instance strategy. There are two main actions that need to be taken to address these organizational issues: ; Involve business-unit executives in alluding and reviewing the business case to create buy-in. Develop a feasibility study that shows how business-unit requirements can be accommodated in a single- instance implementation, and build an instance strategy to support this. Consider getting business-unit executives to develop a business case to Justify why their business unit should not be included in a single-instance solution.Get the executive management team to understand and accept how investing in a single-instance strategy can affect your merger and acquisition strategy. During their due diligence, organizations adopting a single-instance strategy must take account of how ERP systems are used by potential acquisition targets. Similarly, a single-instance strategy may limit downsizing options, because it will be difficult to divest parts of the business on an ongoing basis if they do not have their own business applications. If significant divestiture is likely, then a single-instance ERP project should be deferred until the business environment stabilizes. Key Issues How can more value be gained from an enterprise resource planning investment?Note 1 Definition of Single Instance A single instance of an ERP system is when a single installation of the application is linked to a single database. This significantly sleepless support Ana m alfeasance Decease tenure Is only one set AT application infrastructure to be maintained. This does not necessarily mean that all business units have to use the same business rules, because most ERP systems enable different entities within a single instance to have a degree of uniqueness. However, there will be constraints on the capability of the business units to define their own business rules (compared to separate instances for each business unit).

Case Study Mercy Corps Essay

Introduction At the fourth biennial Mercy Corps leadership conference in November 2006 executive leadership described the well-known, internal complications at Mercy Corps as a large organization ($194 million budget in 2006) that â€Å"has to focus on two core areas: international relief and development† (Grossman & King, 2008). The status of the organization was examined in detail by the Harvard Business School case study and a number of problems were revealed. This analysis is based on the information provided by the case study and addresses four issues. The first section discusses three forms of differentiation and how they are relevant to Mercy Corps. The second section addresses the five different forms of integration in an organization. The third section evaluates the use of differentiation and integration in the organization and the success of differentiation and integration. In the last section I examine whether Mercy Corps is a mechanistic organization or organic organization. Changes in Differentiation As discussed in class and in assigned reading for PUB M 511 there are three forms of differentiation. This is essentially how an organization divides its labor into distinct tasks and then coordinates them (Hodge & Anthony, handout). Hodge & Anthony have defined the three forms of differentiation as: 1. Horizontal differentiation – differentiation of work into tasks at the same level of organization. 2. Vertical differentiation – division of work by level of authority, hierarchy, or chain of command. 3. Spatial differentiation – refers to geographical dispersion. All three forms of differentiation are relevant to key issues in the Mercy Corps case. Horizontal differentiation is clearly evident when the four program directors formerly supervising 40 country directors were replaced by six regional program directors. Effectively, a new department was added and the reporting structure was changed so that country directors were now reporting to their respective regional director who reported to the Portland, OR HQ and not the program directors in Portland, OR. Because the reporting structure was changed the country directors now had one more step before reaching the HQ. On the other hand country directors now had a faster response rate for questions that were not critical. Vertical differentiation was also apparent at Mercy Corps. One example of vertical differentiation at Mercy Corps was Zimmerman’s position. Originally program directors reported to the president but now regional program directors (replaced the four program directors) reported to Zimmerman. This removed the president from the regional program directors; it also helped the president focus on strategic initiatives and become the face of the organization instead of the day-to-day administrative functions. Mercy Corps had a strong sense of spatial differentiation. With 3,000 team members spread out across the world the organization had a strategy that kept the teams abroad aligned with the mission. All teams, despite their geographical locations, align their country goals to their greater vision and mission of Mercy Corps. Although country directors get great autonomy in how they run their program and where their funding comes from they still are working towards a shared goal. Changes in Integration Many of the forms of integration were significant in the Mercy Corps case. As defined by Hodge & Anthony in the handout provided in class the Five Forms of Integration are defined as: 1. Formalization – utilization of formal rules, policies and procedures. 2. Centralization of decision-making or authority – refers to the place in the hierarchy where decisions are made. 3. Span of Control – refers to the number of immediate subordinate positions a managerial position controls or coordinates. 4. Standardization – integration can be achieved through a process, input (human resources and materials), and output standardization. 5. Nonstructural means for integration – refers to the coordination mechanisms including liaison roles, teams, culture, information systems, and communication processes. The Mercy Corps case starts out using formalization at the country director – president. Communication channels are well defined and employee and staff know whom they report to. After the addition of regional directors another layer was added to the communication process. The policies and procedures were formalized and understood by all employees and staff and followed so that funding and program goals could be met. Centralization was not evident at the organization level. It was evident at the country level, where country directors were given permission to run their programs in the most efficient way for that country. Span of control was reasonable for the staff of Mercy Corps. Previously the four program directors had 40 direct reports. This changed when six regional program directors. While span of control was manageable the standardization process was not. The human resources team small compared to other organizations of the same size. The human resources team also was based primarily out of the Portland, OR office with one person in Scotland. In terms of non-structural means for integration, Mercy Corps has liaison roles and communication processes in place. Mercy Corps also has a culture that is adapted by all teams across the globe. Appropriateness of Use of Differentiation and Integration & Success with Differentiation and Integration Mercy Corps used differentiation and integration in a successful way. By leveraging both the highs and the lows of differentiation and integration the organization can function at high operational and strategic level. Mechanistic Organization vs. Organic Organization Mercy Corps as a whole runs like a very mechanistic organization. While the country offices run more similarly to a organic organization. As defined in the handout by Hodge & Anthony a mechanistic organization is: high vertical and horizontal complexity, high formalization, narrow spans of control, high centralization and high standardization. While a organic organization is defined as: low vertical and horizontal complexity, low formalization, broad spans of control, low centralization and low standardization. Conclusion In conclusion, Mercy Corps embodies high differentiation and integration at an organizational level. At the field/country level it seems to operate more on a low differentiation and integration. Therefore, the organization as a whole is run as a mechanistic organization and the field offices are run more organically with more autonomy. References Grossman, Allen S. , and Caroline King. â€Å"Mercy Corps: Positioning the Organization to Reach New Heights. † The Harvard Business School (2008): 1-24. Print. Hodge, Anthony and Gales. Organizational Goals and Effectiveness, Organization Theory: A Strategic Approach. 6th Ed. , 2002. Print. Hodge, Anthony and Gales. The Nature of Structure and Design, Organization Theory: A Strategic Approach. 6th Ed. , 2002. Print. Morgan, Gareth. Images of Organization. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2006. Print.

Herman Melville, Bartleby, the Scrivener or Gail Godwin, A Sorrowful Essay

Herman Melville, Bartleby, the Scrivener or Gail Godwin, A Sorrowful Woman choose one - Essay Example s and actions and the actions of the people around her, the objectivity of the voice is a mask for the subjectivity of womanhood where womanhood is subjective because society narrowly defines and controls it. The narrator of the story is an objective omniscient narrator because she can follow any character around and do not provide interpretations. The narrator provides information on other characters which makes her omniscient. The narrator follows what the father and son to do together one time. The woman is sleeping, but the narrator knows what the father and child did together: â€Å"He took the child for a walk, and when they returned, red-cheeked and boisterous, the father made supper† (Godwin 1). The narrator also turns to other characters to inform the audience of what they are doing. The narrator, furthermore, is also objective because she does not offer judgments or interpretations and lets the readers interpret what is happening. For instance, as the story ends, the narrator describes everything the woman did and then adds: â€Å"The house smelled redolently of renewal and spring† (Godwin 5). There is something ironic about â€Å"renewal and spring† when t he woman plans to kill herself after doing her household duties. The narrator is then leaving the interpretation to the readers. Aside from being objective and omniscient, the narrator’s subjectivity helps readers to understand that the objective tone is ironically subjective because focusing on women’s roles and responsibilities showed that the woman wanted to die because she is tired of being a woman. The narrator hides her subjectivity through objective omniscience. Still, it is clear that the narrator is obsessed with feminine roles and obligations. For example, the narrator describes what the girl maid did as part of her daily work: She painted the room white, fed the child lunch, read edifying books, raced the boy to the mailbox†¦She knitted dresses for herself and played chess with the

Review of an exibition you have visited OR you book you have read of a Essay

Review of an exibition you have visited OR you book you have read of a design related - Essay Example Disney books features and images from the concept development stage which were never seen before. It is entirely about the encounters of a lady known as Ann in a journey .It is dedicated to the design, art and creation of † Frozen†. She was together with a man called Kristoff. The aim of their journey was to search for her sister Elsa who was believed to have icy powers that used to trap the kingdom of Arendelle in eternal winter. Ann and Kristoff were trying all the means and battled to save the kingdom. The book contains a lot of early graphical art designs such as pictures ( SOLOMON, 2013). The art of this book comes with Elsa’s coronation in the first chapter of the book. The book has different graphic designs and styles. Tones of art are packed well with the book having few character designs. The characters have complex costume designs which actually raise the graphics of the book. The second chapter called the wilderness brings to the reader a scene in the forest. There is a development of an art of different kinds of trees and how snow looks on them. There is again the art of Ann going through the forest to look for Elsa. There is also the graphics brought by the landscape of this scene. In the forest Ann comes across the owner of a certain shop which has a few color graphics ( DICKERMAN, 2011). Chapter three of this book is called â€Å"Ice palace.† It has various graphic designs of architecture and look of the ice palace. It contains beautiful early art graphic designs. After Elsa becomes the â€Å"Snow queen,† she changes her hair style and dress. The snow queen, the design ethos, the color theory and graphics, landscapes and the character designs gives the reader the promise of a well written book. Here a reader finds that the author has used graphics of color in the dress won by Elsa to portray to us her point of transformation ( LUXBACHER, 2006). The final chapter which is named, â€Å"The return to Arendelle, mainly has the art of Arendelle

The movie Maria Full of Grace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The movie Maria Full of Grace - Essay Example Maria, Frida and Tita are women that become faced with challenges in life and had to make hard decisions. In Maria Full of Grace, the character Maria is the main character becomes faced with difficult situations in life. Maria Together with other two girls, engage in transporting large quantities of cocaine, from Colombia to New York. At a tender age of 17 years, the young Colombian girl becomes forced to go into selling drugs after she remained the only daughter her family depended on. Despite her harsh economic status even after quiting job from her previous employer. In addition to her problems, she still got pregnant and refused to marry the guy. With increased financial pressure coming from both sides, Maria decided to make a terrible decision. Maria decides to join the Cocaine business as a transporter while in her pregnancy state just to raise money for the up keep of the unborn and her family. In comparison to Tito in the movie Like Water for Chocolate, she also became faced with challenges that made her take appropriate choices. In the beginning of the movie, one could realize the undying love Tita and Piedro had for each other, though her mother, Mama Elena did not consent their union. Piedro ends up marrying his eldest sister, Rosaura. Tita continued her pursuit for her lover by ensuring she cared her nephew after birth more than her sister. Her mother on realizing how Piedro and Tita came closer each day due to the Rosaura’s child, she arranges for Piedro and Rosaura to move to a distant place. This stressed Tita as she was deeply in love with Piedro and his son. The main character in the film Frida, also proved to be a strong willed woman. Even after getting polio, getting involved in an accident, she still manages to pull herself together and learn how to walk. It is her determination to walk after such an accident that shocks many. Furthermore, after recovery from the hospital, Frida manages to walk, but in pain. Are they fit choices or no t? From the three movies, a lot could be derived from the hardships they underwent to become what they did. These women hard to make tough choices some of which were inimical while others good. Tina after struggling with Mother Elena in life and even after life with her ghost, eventually becomes freed from the snare of tradition to marry her true love Piedro despite the many challenges that stood on her way. Tita knew that her eldest sister became forced to marry Piedro in an attempt to obey traditions and hence still persisted knowing Piedro will do in response. The story hence is a love story of two lovers that became bound to be together for life and afterlife. The main obstacle to Tita was her mother, Elena whom hated her. For instance, even after getting hurt after raiders injured her, she still refused food brought to her by Tita, eventually dying due to ingesting overdose of emetics. Tita’s choice of loving Piedro for life proved a terrific idea. For instance, after Pi edro and his wife moved to San Antonio with their child, it died since it was deriving its love from Tita. In as much as she was the youngest in the family, she treated her mother well, though her mother treated her badly. In the movie, when she becomes tormented by the ghost of Elena, she made a decision to condemn it. This ended up badly as Piedro became consumed with the dying flame from the ghost. Another decision Tita made was telling her husband John of her undying love for Piedro. John accepts, but just tells her to decide. Tita eventually agrees to get married to Piedro which they end up enjoying their passion to death. Maria engages in the illegal

Development of a microfluidic device for extraction Essay

Development of a microfluidic device for extraction - Essay Example This newly microfluidic device for protein extraction may find an application in the area of proteomic research. Keywords: Microfluidic device; Sol-gel; Silica monolith; Protein extraction; Octadecyl (C18) 1. Introduction It is becoming increasingly important in the development of new medicines to use important a microfluidic tool for identifying proteins implicated in disease pathways. As the search for novel molecules to tackle diseases increases, the need to identify proteins on biological targets also increases. Efficient extraction of proteins is the most critical step for proteomics by removing the interfering materials and improving the detection sensitivity (Ahn & Wang, 2008). The recently invented silica monolithic materials are highly permeable to liquid flow and have high mass transport compared with the packed beds. Moreover, the monolithic stationary phase does not need frits, which can cause air bubbles to form and the proteins can be adsorbed into the frits and remain trapped (Cabrera et al., 2002 ). Fabrication silica monolith inside the microfluidic devices can decrease the volume of the sample and the reagents, and reduce the time of the analysis (Girault et al., 2004). Bienvenue et al. (2006) have observed that the negative aspect of the sol-gel monolith in microfluidic device is the fact that it shrinks while the monolith is formed. They further explain that this is can then cause the creation of an opening between the silica network and the microchip wall resulting in reduced surface area for protein adsoption. The aim of this contribution is to investigate the fabrication of a simple microfluidic device contained in a crack-free silica monolith to decrease sample handling, reduce contamination, be truly portable, and decrease analysis time. Moreover, its aim is to modify the surface of the silica monolith to Octadecyl silica (ODS) to use it for pre-concentration and extraction of proteins. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Chemicals and materi als Poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) MW=10,000 Da, trimethylchlorosilane, tetramethylorthosilicate 99 % (TMOS), chlorodimethyloctadecylsilane 95 %, 2,6-lutidine 99 %, NaCl, and trizma base were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Poole, UK) and used as received without any further purification. Bovine pancreas insulin, bovine heart cytochrome C, chicken egg white lysozyme, ?-lactoglobulin from milk bovine, haemoglobin from human, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) were purchased from the same. Nitric acid, ammonia, toluene, HPLC grade acetonitrile (ACN), and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) was obtained from Fisher Scientific UK Ltd. (Loughborough, UK). MicroTight Adapter was purchased from Kinesis (Cambs, UK). Poly (ether ether ketone) (PEEK) tubing was purchased from Anachem (Luton, UK). 2.2. Instrumentation Baby bee syringe pump from Bioanalytical System Inc. (West Lafayette, USA). The instrument used for detection was HPLC-UV detection: 785A UV/Visible Detector from Perkin Elmer (California, USA). T he reversed-phase analytical column was Symmetry C8 column, 4.6 mm ? 250 mm packed with silica particles (size 5 Â µm) from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Loughborough, UK). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) (EVO 60. Manufacturer: Carl Zeiss Ltd. (Welwyn Garden City, UK). SEMPREP 2 Sputter Coater from Nanotechnology Ltd. (Sandy, UK). 2.3. Fabrication of the silica-based

CONTEMPORARY CORPORATE GOVERNANCE ISSUES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

CONTEMPORARY CORPORATE GOVERNANCE ISSUES - Essay Example It is an institutional arrangement for various corporate participants having direct or indirect interests in corporation like shareholders, managers/directors, creditors, customers, suppliers, employees, local communities, general public and government (Figure 1). Figure 1: Corporate Governance Relationships Source: (Letza, Sun & Kirkbride, 2004, p.243) The importance of corporate governance in 21st century has been highlight by series of corporate frauds like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco whose managers engaged in illegal reporting leading to loss of shareholder wealth. As shareholders in many countries are absentee owners and managers have the control and power over the organization’s activities, these managers can place their own interest before the interests of shareholders, therefore generating the principal-agent conflict. There are certain views regarding the convergence of corporate governance systems however such possibility is least likely to happen due to difference in c orporate culture and ownership structures. In recent years many influential proposals have been made in UK regarding corporate governance such as Higgs 2003, Turnbull Committee 1999, Hampel Committee 1998, Greenbury Committee 1995 etc (Letza, Sun & Kirkbride, 2004, p.242). The legislative strategies place importance to the need of a single governance structure for the corporate world. However no single model of corporate governance has worked at all times. Presently there are four main perspectives on corporate governance that are discussed in the following sections. The Principal-Agent Model Considering a sole-proprietorship organization where the owner-manager is considering sale of a part of his interest to outsiders. As the owner-manager’s share will fall the incentive to... According to the research findings the field of corporate governance is relatively new to the theory of organization. Although the issues of corporate frauds, social irresponsibility and abuse of managerial power that have led to corporate governance mechanisms are not new to the corporate world. The corporate fraud case of Enron, WorldCom and Barings bank has made the investors realize the governance issues of ownership and control. However the theories which form the theoretical framework of corporate governance have not been fully developed to provide a uniform solution to address agency problems. Based on the review paper by Letza, Sun and Kirkbride on corporate governance this project has been an attempt to critically analyze the models of corporate governance which have been categorized into two perspectives- Shareholder and Stakeholder. These models have been the much debated due their different approach towards the governing mechanisms and the changing relationship of managem ent and shareholders and/or stakeholders. The principal-agent model has been the theoretical basis of the other three models however due to widely accepted flaw of equating wealth maximization with share price maximization has led economists to look beyond the shareholder wealth maximization objective. The myopic market model is similar to principal-agent model but is oriented more towards the internal mechanisms built on long-term relationship and corporate performance.

Article critique in Higher Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Article critique in Higher Education - Essay Example he NSF/PTK project, the credibility of the authors to write about the NSF/PTK project is not as strong as compared to having all the three authors a member of the NSF/PTK project. The qualification of the authors would have been stronger if all the authors are members of the NSF/PTK project. The author of this article mentioned that the article was written to determine the impact of the NSF and PTK project in the quality of the community’s education. It is good that the authors explicitly stated in Table I – Phi Theta Kappa Award-Winning Colleges the name of the seven selected schools, the number of campuses in each school, the number of enrollees and education program students together with its partnered 4-year institution that participated in the study. This information provides the reader a rough idea on where the study in this article was conducted. Funded by the NSF and PTK, the authors explicitly stated that the purpose of the study is to determine the impact or effect of the implemented national project on the 7 selected community colleges including the 4-year partner institutions in strengthening the Science, Mathematics, and technology components of the educational programs in each community college. The authors did not mention any research question or hypothesis in this study. This area is one of the weak points of this study. The article would have been written better by including some research question and/or hypotheses since it would allow the readers to have a critical thinking regarding the main topic of this article. There is no solid literature review in this article. Since two of the authors are professors and the other one is a teacher education instructor, most of the information in this article came from their own idea, perception, and experience in their teaching profession. mentioned that the NSF and PTK project has two rounds of funding wherein the first round is composed of seven mentor teams that worked with 18 selected community

The Century’s Most Groundbreaking Advertising And How It Changed Us All James B. Twitchell Essay Example for Free

The Century’s Most Groundbreaking Advertising And How It Changed Us All James B. Twitchell Essay Just like all the ads around us, it seems as if we are beat over the head with the idea that success comes from distinction. Time and time again, we all hear this notion that if you want to â€Å"break though† the clutter, you have to be different. It’s easier said than done with billions of ads around us. So, where did this all start? We have learned about the days when people would paint their street signs in hopes to be the best barber shop in town. Well of course, with little competition meant great business. Unfortunately, we have grown to live in a world full of competition, for jobs, more money, better education, etc. Now take a step back, the people behind selling you all these things are competing for your attention too. Who is the going to sell you the best education, the best food, where is the best place to get a great job? It’s an all around circle of who can get whose attention. In light of all this information we deal with day in and day out, James B. Twitchell has taken us back to the roots of where our advertising comes from. There were groundbreaking advertisements that opened the door to evolution and change. In his book, â€Å"20 Ads that Shook the World†, we are taken through this history and story of our past. Everyone thinks advertising is just the cousin to the creepy used car’s salesman, but there is a rich culture behind what we do that no one knows about! It’s not just people sitting in conference room thinking about how to get your money, ok, well maybe it is, but it’s not what society makes it out to be. Their ignorance comes from a lack of education. Twitchell’s 20 ads are a plethora of information and as he retells the deep history rooted back to the â€Å"good old days†, he tells this story in hopes of enlightening those with a preconceived notion. Twitchell lays the groundwork for his book through a very interesting introduction chapter. From topics of commercial speech to commercialism, he discusses the cultural phenomenon that makes up ads. He makes it clear from this point on that advertising is not something that leads individuals to buying things. Advertisings its society’s way oh â€Å"blaming† the adman for their incessant purchasing habits. â€Å"Once we are fed and sheltered, our needs are and have always been cultural, not natural†, Twithcell claims, and this basis for writing the book is ingenious. Advertising professions might pick this book up in their spare time for a fun read, but I think he has targeted this novel for those who don’t know. Rightfully so, it is a great book for the avid advertiser in college. Education is key; he makes a point to discuss how you can ask any doctor or lawyer about their history. â€Å"Why do they have institutional memories while admen don’t? Twitchell’s twenty ads address the problem of an incomplete education, so the book serves a great audience. To us (advertisers) ads are an art form, but to the rest of the world it’s all something they glance over for thirty seconds or so and forget down the road. He makes the point to say that we don’t have a story that is unforgettable. We too can be doctors and English professors who can say we have a story to study not â€Å"trash†. To every story there is another story the beginning. If we can appreciate the history behind what we do, society too can learn what is about ads that makes them what they are today. Not all of them of course, but the ones worthy of being considered â€Å"the greatest art form of the twentieth century† (Marshall McLuhan) With this idea that Twitchell is telling a story he has laid the book out into 20 chapters, suitably each chapter recounts the background of each advertisement. The book is a composition of shorts stories that in the end retell the whole idea of what the groundwork for today’s ideas are based off of. His method of developing the story is not really a narration but more of an exposition because he dives into the meaning of each advertisement. His analysis not only recounts the historical background for which the ad was written. However, because the book is also tailored to an â€Å"uneducated audience†, one might consider his thoughts to be more of an argument in some cases. If he wrote the book with the intention of changing the idea of what advertising really is to someone, it might help to say that his method of development can be classified to specific target audiences (both and argument, but more of an exposition). Without a doubt in an advertiser’s mind, Twitchell’s basis and thesis can’t stand to be argued with. Advertiser’s can all agree with the fact that we â€Å"clutter† the world with information, and we all know what it is to put together a great ad. It takes a lot of hard work and you can’t really say there is a formula to it, but we can surely agree on the fact that someone back in the day came up with something that sparked the way we create things today. The greatest example of the book is chapter 13, The Hathaway Man: David Ogilvy and the Branding of Branding. Back in the 1950’s Ogivly came up with this man that everyone wanted to be and every woman wanted to be with. These ads for the Hathaway Shirt Company ran from 1951 to 1990, and for 39 years one man was successful at branding a plain white dress shirt. People wanted this shirt because the loved the man who wore it. Think about today, we want things because of the stigma behind who makes it or who wears it. â€Å"The modern customer of prestige brands wants the mark for all to see†, Hathaway Shirts opened the door for the brand clustered society of today’s logo driven enterprise. Twitchell’s examples, from Marlboro and Listerine mouth wash, to the story of Coke and Christmas, all 20 ads are dissected, bit by bit, to really explain to the reader what is about each ad that started the revolution. Now, who can argue with that?

The Prevalence of Malaria in Northern Nigeria

The Prevalence of Malaria in Northern Nigeria Epidemiological Overview Generally, malaria is widespread throughout most of the tropics globally. However, according to Bradley (1992), the epidemiology of malaria has been characteristically varied across the globe because of malaria’s largely diverse vectorial capacity (p. 1). Out of the approximately 3.4 billion people who are globally prone to malaria infections annually, about 1.2 billion are at a higher risk. The World Health Organization (2013) reports that in 2012 alone more than 207 million people developed symptomatic malaria. Between 2000 and 2010, the figures released by the WHO report are, to some extent, encouraging as the number of reported annual malaria incidences in 34 malaria-eliminating countries decreased by 85 % from 1.5 million to 232, 000 cases (WHO, 2013). However, from the same report, the global malaria deaths reached a high of 1.82 million in 2004 and considerably fell to 1.24 million in 2010. Among the deaths reported in 2010 were 714,000 children below the age of 5 and 5 24,000 individuals above the age of 5. However, shockingly, the World Health Organization (2013) reports that over 80% of malaria deaths occur in the sub-Saharan Africa. Shockingly, the Nigeria Malaria Indictor Report (2012) reports that Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo account for over 40% of the total malaria deaths globally. This revelation has led to several concerted efforts in the two leading countries aimed at addressing the prevalence of malaria. Malaria Situation in Northern Nigeria Nigeria is ranked as one of the most populous countries in Africa with a population of approximately 170 million according to the 2013 population statistics and an estimated annual growth rate of 2.6% (Malaria Operation Plan, 2013). The 2010 United Nations Development Program Human Development Index ranks Nigeria at position 142 out among 169 countries (WHO, 2013). The country has an estimated under-five mortality rate of 157 per 1000 live births and maternal mortality is estimated at 545 per 100,000 live births according to the 2008 Demographic and Health Survey (Okafor Oko-Ose, 2012). The southern part of Nigeria is significantly advantaged in almost all social and economic indicators. In this regards, both the child mortality and maternal mortality are relatively higher. For instance, Okafor Oko-Ose (2012) illustrate that the under-five mortality rates are about one and a half times higher while the maternal mortality rates are about three times higher as compared to some northe rn parts of Nigeria. Contrastingly, despite the high income attributed to the sales of crude oil, no significant improvement has been recorded and majority of the Nigerians, especially the Northerners live in abject poverty (Malaria Operation Plan, 2013). About 97% of the Nigerian population is at risk of Malaria infection with the majority being those living in Northern Nigeria according to a research conducted by the Nigeria Malaria Index Survey (2010). Specifically, research has found out that incidences of malaria transmissions account for over 60% of outpatient visits and 30% of inpatients in Nigerian healthcare institutions. Incidentally, malaria infection is a primary cause of children mortality and contributes to an estimated 225,000 cases of deaths annually (WHO, 2013). Malaria also contributes to an estimated 11% of maternal mortality and about 105 of low birth weight according to NMCP Strategic Plan 2009-2013. The geographic location of Nigeria makes the climate condition to be ideal for malaria transmission nearly throughout the country. In fact, the remaining 3% of the entire country’s population, who are relatively at a low chance of infection, actually live in the mountainous regions in the southern parts of Nigeria (Jos Plateau State) with an altitude of between 1,200 to 1,400 metres. A series of studies have been conducted to elucidate the effect of seasonal changes on epidemiological index of malaria transmission in Northern Nigeria. Undeniably, the climatic condition of Northern Nigeria is seasonal with rainy seasons in May-October, dry season in December-March and transitional period in April-November (Malaria Operation Plan, 2013). However, studies on the prevalence of malaria in Northern Nigeria have shown that malaria transmission has been predominant during the rainy season and lowest during the dry season. Gender Distribution and Prevalence of Malaria Transmission Generally, studies have shown that Plasmodium infections appear more common in the male than in the females in Northern Nigeria. For, example, a study conducted to ascertain malaria occurrences among children aged six months to eleven years in Benin City presented a shocking result. According to the findings of the research, malaria transmission from 2004 to 2009 in male averaged at 57 % while during the same period under review, the transmission in females was at an average of 43% (Okafor Oko-Ose, 2012). A similar research conducted in the Northern Nigeria’s Ebonyi and Edo States in 2004 made a similar conclusion. This prevalence has been attributed to the fact that males expose their bodies more than females especially when the weather is hot. In that regards, males are more likely to be bitten by mosquitoes. On the other hand, Okafor Oko-Ose (2012) explain that females tend to stay indoors, helping out with normal household chores. This significantly reduces their contact with the mosquito vector. Either, studies have shown that females have relatively better immunity to parasitic diseases due to their hormonal and genetic composition. Age Factor and Malaria Prevalence Based on age, studies have shown that children aged  ½ 2 years have the highest prevalence in malaria transmission (Okafor Oko-Ose, 2012). According to the research conducted in Benin City in Northern Nigeria among children aged  ½ to 11 years, it was realized that children aged  ½ -2 years recorded the highest prevalence of 58.6% followed by the age bracket 3 – 5 years at 30.5% and the least being age group 9-11 years at 2.9%. Basically, we can conclude that children under the age of 5 years are more prone to incidences of malaria transmission. In general, malaria transmission is in a declining trend. A finding carried out in 1999, for instance, in Erunmu in southwest Nigeria reported about 80% malaria parasite prevalence among school children. A similar research conducted in Benin City, according to Okafor Oko-Ose (2012) clearly showed this decline in prevalence. In 2004, the prevalence among children of  ½ 11 years was 47%. By 2009, the prevalence had dropped considerably to 32%. Through the period under consideration, the overall prevalence of malaria was reported at 36.4%. In a nutshell, this decline can be attributed to the effect of some preventive measures against malaria that has been adopted by the Nigerian Government. Health Determinants and their Influence on Malaria Prevalence Many factors combine together to affect the health of individuals and communities in a particular area. The Health Impact Assessment (2014) explains that the environment and the circumstances that people live in extensively determine whether people are healthy or not. To a larger extent, factors such as where an individual lives, the state of the environment, genetics, income, education level and our relationship with friends and families all have significant impact on health. However, on a more specific note, determinants of health include the social and economic environment, the physical environment and the individual’s characteristics and behaviors (The Health Impact Assessment, 2014). This paper will elucidate the impact of socio-economic environment and the physical environment on malaria transmission in Northern Nigeria based on both social economic environment and the physical environment. The Social and Economic Environment Malaria has predominantly been linked with poverty and the reduction of the propensity of malaria has become a major priority for the Nigerian Government for a long period of time. In particular, malaria is a leading cause of both child and maternal mortality and morbidity in Northern Nigeria that is relatively of a lower social and economic rating (WHO, 2013 and Nigeria Malaria Indicator Survey 2010). The economic burden of malaria illness on households accounts for almost 50% of total economic burden of illnesses in the Northern regions of Nigeria. Further, multiple studies have noted that individuals of lower social and economic status bear a disproportionate burden of the parasitic disease and have poor health seeking habits and at times lack necessary health facilities. Generally, research has shown that up to 58% of malaria transmission occurs in the poorest 20% of the world population who, incidentally, receives the worst care and has disastrous consequences from the illness ( WHO, 2013). More specifically, there is a heavy malaria burden on the poor than on the rich as demonstrated by recent studies in Northern Nigeria States and in the cities states. According to this research, individuals with an estimate income of less than N300 per day (earning less than a dollar per day) were less likely to perceive malaria as a preventable disease and subsequently recorded more incidences of malaria per month as compared to those who earned less than N300 per day (Yusuph, 2010). Arguably, the rural dwellers of the Northern Nigeria have a higher risk of infection than their counterpart urban residents. The current statistics indicate that between 6% 28% of the malaria burden may occur in urban areas which comprise only 2% of the entire African surface (Yusuph et al., 2010). There could be a relationship between this predominance to the socio-economic status of people living in both rural and poverty-ridden regions. Evidently, members of lower socio-economic societies live in environments that offer little or no protection against mosquitoes and they are also less likely to afford the insecticide-treated mosquito nets. Clearly, higher social and economic status groups and urban residents posses more malaria preventive tools and therefore, report few incidences of malaria. In addition, low socio-economic status groups are unlikely to pay either for effective malaria treatment or for transportation to a health facility capable of treating the scourge. The Physical Environment Geographically, malaria is transmitted due to the interaction between the malaria mosquito parasite and the human environments (The Health Impact Assessment, 2014). The geographical location of Northern Nigeria presents a key ingredient to the breeding and existence of the malaria-causative parasite. The Progress Impact Series Country Reports (2012) describes Nigeria’s climate as tropical climate with alternating wet and dry seasons throughout the year which is suitable for malaria transmission. Presence of mangrove swamps, the rain forest, the guinea-savannah, the Sudan-savannah and the Sahel-savanna that extends from the South to the North of Nigeria determine the intensity, seasonality and duration of malaria transmission. On the other hand, apart from the climatic condition, the Northern States of Nigeria have access to inadequate physical facilities, safe water, medical facilities and poor infrastructure that presents a daunting challenge to the prevention or treatment o f malaria infections. Prevention Strategy based on Social and Economic Status This paper has emphasized on the major public health challenges that high prevalence of malaria presents to the people of Northern Nigeria. The most biologically vulnerable group, as have been noted, are the children below the age of five and pregnant women, perhaps due to their comparatively lower immunity status (Mazumdar Guha, 2013). Basically, most of the malaria transmissions occur among the poverty ridden residents of the Northern Nigeria. Social and economic background has been distinctively demonstrated by this paper as a major health determinant in malaria transmission in the northern parts of Nigeria. With the highly perturbing statistical information on malaria transmissions and prevalence in Northern Nigeria, there is a need for an infective and inclusive preventive plan that addresses the most biologically vulnerable group and their social and economic factors that determines their health. Consequently, this papers outlines a four dimensional preventive strategy that is undoubtedly capable of containing the mortality and morbidity among children and expectant women. This preventive strategy summarily focus on management of transmission cases, prevention of malaria with insecticide-treated nets, indoor residual spraying to reduce transmission and finally the use of intermitted preventive treatment and the use of intermittent preventive treatment for pregnant women. Prompt Diagnosis and Treatment This strategy focuses on timely diagnosis and effective treatment of cases of malaria infections by use of relevant anti-malarial drugs. This strategy is aimed at ensuring that up to 80% of the population, mostly children below the age of 5 and the pregnant women, who are at risk of malaria take timely and necessary treatment at the initial stages of infection. Under this strategy, there is need for provision of free necessary anti- malarial drugs like Artmether-Lumefantrine (Mazumdar Guha, 2013). There is also a need for a home based care management system especially for the most vulnerable population, that is, children below the age of five. The complexity of this strategy requires a multidimensional approach and involvement by the public sector, the private sector and the faith based health facilities for effectiveness. Distribution of insecticide-treated nets (ITN) This strategy is intended to prevent malaria transmission to a larger population especially the most vulnerable children under the age of 5 and the pregnant women. Under this strategy, pregnant women and children under the age of five are to be provided with free insecticide treated mosquito nets. These nets should be provided to the expectant women when they attend their ante natal care services in designated health facilities. This scheme also proposes the use of relatively long lasting insecticide nets so as to address the social and economic challenges that bedevils most of the vulnerable groups. Indoor Residual Spraying The Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) is geared towards curtailing the transmission of malaria in both the pregnant women and children under the age of five. This program requires entomological monitoring and proper management of insecticide resistance especially among the ignorant population that are characteristic of a low social economic majority. It also requires behavior change communication with the target population and technical assistance and training especially to the personnel in the indoor residential spraying exercise. Intermittent Preventive Treatment for Expectant Women This last strategy primarily focuses on regulation of malarial prevalence among expectant women. Statistical data that only 58% of pregnant women by 2008 had access to antenatal care from relevant service providers while 62% of expectant women successfully delivered at home elucidates the extent of socio-economic disparity and the need for effective preventive treatment programs for pregnant women. Ideally, a couple of factors contribute to low utilization of health facilities by expectant women. Primarily, inadequate or poor quality of antenatal services, expensive cost of the services and ignorance on the need to attend antenatal services indisputably discourages expectant women from utilizing antenatal services from relevant health facilities. As a preventive measure to the challenges facing expectant women, this strategy identifies specific drugs that can effectively fight malaria in expectant women. The Intermittent Prevention Therapy (IPT) and Sulphadoxine-Pyrimethamine (SP) ha ve been identified as effective malaria prevention among this vulnerable group. These drugs should be administered freely to the women since majority of them may not be able to afford such drugs. In conclusion, this paper reaffirms the need to address the malaria menace especially in the sub-Sahara Africa and other tropics. The paper lays emphasis on the prevalence of this scourge on children under the age of 5 and pregnant women. The paper also extensively discusses how socio-economic factors and physical environments contribute to the prevalence of malaria infections especially in poor neighborhoods in Africa and Northern Nigeria in specific. This paper presents a preventive strategy that focuses on the most vulnerably group. Reference Bradley, D. J. (1992). Malaria: Old Infections, Changing Epidemiology. London: London School of Hygiene, in Health Transition Review Vol. 2. Supplementary Issue 1992. Health Impact Assessment (2014). The Determinants of Health. WHO. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/hia/evidence/doh/en/ Malaria Indicator Survey (2010). Final Report. Retrieved from http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/MIS8/MIS8.pdf Malaria Operational Plan FY 2013. President’s Malaria Initiative. Retrieved from www.pmi.gov/countries/mops/fy13/nigeria_mop_fy13.pd Mazumdar S. Guha, P. M. (2013). Prevention and Treatment of Malaria in Nigeria: Differential and Determinants from a Spatial View. Retrieved from http://uaps2007.princeton.edu/papers/70579 Okafor, F. U. Oko-Ose, J. N. (2012). Prevalence of Malaria Infections among Children aged six months to eleven years in Benin City, Nigeria. In The Global Advanced Research Journal and Medical Sciences Vol. 1 (10) p. 273-279, November, 2012. Retrieved from, http://garj.org/garjmms/pdf/2012/november/Okafor and Oko-ose.pdf Progress Impact Series Country Reports, No. 4 (2012). WHO. Retrieved from http://www.rbm.who.int/ProgressImpactSeries/docs/report11-en.pdf Report on Nigeria Malaria Indicator Survey (2010). Retrieved from http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/MIS8/MIS8.pdf Yusuph, O. B. et al. (2010). Poverty and Fever Vulnerability in Nigeria: A Multilevel Analysis. In Malaria Journal. Retrieved from http://www.malariajournal.com/content/9/1/235 World Health Organization. World Malaria Report (2013). Retrieved from www.who.int/iris//9789241564694_eng.pdf

Legal Barriers For Foreign Investors In Vietnam Economics Essay

Legal Barriers For Foreign Investors In Vietnam Economics Essay Vietnam in recent years has emerged as Southeast Asias fastest-growing economy and one of the regions hottest new destinations for foreign investors. Vietnam joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in January 2007. Its membership requires the country to merge into the global rules-based trading system and increase transparency in government decision making, speed up economic reform, and strengthen the rule of law. The Vietnamese economy offers many attractions for U.S. companies. About 70% of the population is under the age of 30, and the country has a literacy rate above 95%. Per capita income has more than doubled in the past 10 years, and domestic consumption is growing at more than 20% per year. Vietnams increasingly affluent urban consumers think highly of U.S. consumer goods. Vietnam has many natural resources and agricultural products, including oil and gas, marine products, rice, coffee, rubber, and tea. Some of the countrys top export industries produce garments and textiles, footwear, furniture, and seafood. Its major imports include machinery and equipment, petroleum products, fertilizer, steel, raw cotton, grain, cement, and motorcycles. Two decades have past since the country mounted an economic reform program known as doi moi. Vietnam is in the midst of transformation from an inward-looking command economy with little space for personal initiative to a more open society with a vibrant, free market economy that seeks to engage with the wider world. Hanoi in 2006 hosted the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit, which along with a visit by U.S. President George W. Bush, marked Vietnams emergence as a key player in the regional and global economy. The United States and Vietnam have forged strong relations in recent years despite a tragic history, stepping up cooperation in such areas as HIV/AIDS control, avian flu prevention, law enforcement, and a growing military-to-military partnership. The U.S. government is helping Vietnam restructure its education system and reform its legal system. The two governments are cooperating in accounting for servicemen missing since the war, launching a human rights dialogue, and establishing new forms of regional security cooperation. Although the GATT progressively acquired many of the attributes of an international organisation, it was increasingly felt in the 1980s that it was not keeping up with the rapid changes in the global economy, and required strengthened dispute-settlement and transparency mechanisms. While this was reflected in the agenda of the Uruguay round, the Ministerial Declaration establishing the rounds agenda did not call for the creation of a WTO. Instead, it was agreed that the round would be a single undertaking, with all its agreements applying to all GATT contracting parties. In principle, it was not necessary to create an international organisation to implement the results of the round, especially in so far as a common dispute-settlement mechanism was agreed to apply to all of the various agreements reached. The suggestion to establish a Multilateral Trade Organisation (MTO) by Canada in 1990 -supported by the EU was therefore something of a surprise. An important motivation to establis h an MTO was to have a single institutional framework encompassing the modified GATT, its sister bodies on services (GATS) and intellectual property (TRIPs), and all other agreements and arrangements concluded under the auspices of the Uruguay round. The United States initially opposed the idea, but, after further negotiations on the substance of the new organisation, agreed to the framework that currently exists, including the name change. Although the US Congress remained suspicious of any limitations to its sovereign powers in trade policy, during the ratification debate it became clear that the establishment of the WTO would not do much to change the status quo as far as the infringement of sovereignty was concerned. The GATT-1947 was a binding international treaty, and most of the institutional aspects of the WTO already existed under the GATT. None the less, the establishment of the WTO was a significant event. Attempts to put the GATT on a more secure organisational footing had been made periodically since the failure of the US Congress to ratify the ITO. During a 1955 meeting to review the GATT, a number of contracting parties proposed to establish an Organisation for Trade Co-operation (OTC). This proposal was much less elaborate than the ITO but it also failed to win the approval of the US Congress (Jackson, 1990). The issue of providing an institutional framework for international trade reappeared again in the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the UN in 1963. A group of experts called for the creation of a new UN agency with universal membership and substantial powers in the sphere of international trade. The idea was that this body would implement, interalia, recommendations of UNCTAD as well as other relevant policy decisions taken by organs of the UN. The proposal envisaged that the GATT would become the agen cys Committee on Tariffs. The proposal did not meet with much interest among the major trading nations. However, the 1964 UN General Assembly resolution establishing UNCTAD provided that it should be concerned with matters relating to the elaboration of a comprehensive trade organisation. Nothing concrete came of this despite lengthy discussions about the need for a New International Economic Order during the 1970s in large part because of the widely differing philosophies held by industrialised market economies and much of the developing world regarding the appropriate basis for international trade. With the creation of the WTO, an international trade organisation exists that is firmly based on GATT principles reciprocity and non-discrimination. The Scope, Functions, And Structure Of The WTO As the principal institution with responsibility for the multilateral trading system, the WTO has the same status as institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF. The WTO has legal personality and has been accorded privileges and immunities similar to those accorded to the specialised UN agencies. It is headed by a Ministerial Conference of all Members, meeting at least once every two years. More frequent participation by trade ministers than occurred in the GATT context is intended to strengthen the political guidance of the WTO and enhance the prominence and credibility of its rules in domestic political arenas. It can be noted, however, that past experience of the GATT with Ministerial meetings suggests that these can easily be an inefficient use of the time of many Ministers from smaller trading nations. This is because in negotiations the controversial issues tend to be solved at the last moment and require agreement between the major players. The latter may take a significan t amount of time to strike a deal between themselves, thereby marginalizing the potential for participation by Ministers of smaller countries. The WTO is charged with providing the common institutional framework for the conduct of trade relations among its Members in matters related to the agreements and associated legal instruments included in the Annexes . . . to the Agreement. There are four such Annexes, which contain the substantive rights and obligations of Members. Annex 1 has three parts: Annex 1A entitled Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods, contains the GATT-1994 (the GATT-1947 as amended by a large number of Understandings and supplementary Agreements negotiated in the Uruguay round); Annex 1B, which contains the GATS; and Annex 1C, the Agreement on TRIPs. Annex 2 consists of an Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes the WTOs common dispute-settlement mechanism. Annex 3 contains the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM), an instrument through which surveillance of Members trade policies occurs. Finally, Annex 4 entitled Plurilateral Trade Agreements consists of Tokyo round codes that were not multilateralised in the Uruguay round, and that therefore bind only signatories. Annexes 1-3 together are called the Multilateral Trade Agreements. The WTO has five functions. It is charged with facilitating the implementation and operation of the Multilateral Trade Agreements; providing a forum for negotiations on already covered or new issues; administering the Understanding on dispute settlement and the TPRM; and, finally, co-operating with the World Bank and the IMF to achieve greater coherence in global economic policy-making (Article III WTO). Between meetings of the Ministerial Conference responsible for carrying out the functions of the WTO the organisation is run by a General Council at the level of officials. The General Council turns itself, as needed, into a body to adjudicate trade disputes (the Dispute Settlement Body) or to review trade policies of the member countries (the Trade Policy Review Body). Three subsidiary councils operate under the general guidance of the WTOs General Council: the Council for Trade in Goods; the Council for Trade in Services; and the Council for Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. Separate Committees exist to deal primarily with the interests of the least developed countries (Trade and Development); surveillance of trade restriction actions taken for balance-of payment purposes; trade-environment linkages; and the WTOs finances and administration (Secretariat). Additional committees or working parties deal with matters covered by the GATT, GATS, or TRIPs Agreement. There are committees functioning under the auspices of the Council on Trade in Goods dealing with subsidies, anti-dumping and countervailing measures, technical barriers to trade (product standards), import licensing, customs valuation, market access, agriculture, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, trade-related investment measures, rules of origin, and safeguards. Similarly, specific committees address matters relating to the GATS or TRIPs. Committees also exist to administer the Plurilateral Agreements. However, these are not under the guidance of the General Council but operat e within the general framework of the WTO and inform the Council of their activities. There were more than thirty councils and standing committees in the WTO in 1995 twice as many as under the old GATT. WTO In a struggle that began in the early 1980s, many countries worked in the Uruguay Round negotiations of 1986-94 to strengthen the multilateral trading system, as well as advance the liberalisation of international trade in goods, services and ideas. Governments are in the process of implementing the resulting agreements that now comprise the World Trade Organisation. They are interested in extending the WTO system to outside economies, but not in exposing it to fresh disputes and divisions, which is why negotiations on the accession of new members are detailed, rigorous and time consuming. This is critical in accommodating the economies in transition. One of the major political tasks before the World Trade Organisation (WTO), as it gears itself to address the needs of the international trading community for the remainder of this century and beyond, is to extend the benefits of the open multilateral trading system to economies that are still outside.  [1]  It means ensuring that the integration of outsiders into the world economy leads to concrete benefits for them as well as for their trading partners who are WTO member countries. It also means that the terms and conditions of entry should be such as to preserve and, hopefully, strengthen the credibility of the multilateral trading system, rather than weaken or expose it to disputes and divisions. Success in meeting these goals will depend, in practical terms, on the way the accession process is managed and controlled. If the right terms are arranged, an additional 1.5 billion new consumers and workers would benefit from the multilateral trading system, well before the year 2000. This is an opportunity that cannot be missed. One of the WTOs central objectives is to make the organisation truly global in scope and application. The WTO has 124 members as of October 1996. The member countries are now engaged in accession negotiations with 28 governments that have formally applied to join. Many others are considering applying. Bulgaria, Mongolia and Panama completed their accession negotiations earlier in the year and will become WTO members when they ratify their protocols. The most recent applications for accession have been from Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic and Georgia. Existing requests include major economies like the Peoples Republic of China, Chinese Taipei (known in the WTO as the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu), the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Ukraine, Belarus and Vietnam. All these are important players on the international economic, trade and trade-related investment scene. There are also requests for accession from smaller but similarly significant countries. Many of them are economies in transition such as Albania, Armenia, Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia and Moldova. There are others that are developing economies, among them Algeria, Jordan, Seychelles, Tonga and Vanuatu. Applications have also been received from such least developed economies as Cambodia, Nepal and Sudan. These countries and territories represent a wide range of economic and political interests. But they represent a critical common factor that motivates them. Big or small, developed or developing, they all look to WTO membership to underpin their domestic economic reforms, to help them compete fairly in the international marketplace and to counter discrimination and arbitrary behaviour with the help of enforceable multilateral rules. Benefits Of WTO Membership Why do governments want to join the WTO system? What are the benefits of WTO membership? First, membership means access for their economys exports of goods and services to the markets of the WTO community on unconditional most-favoured-nation (MFN) terms. The substantially reduced tariffs and non-tariff barriers achieved through eight rounds of multilateral trade negotiations over the last half century become available to entrepreneurs in the applicant country immediately on its accession. In the Uruguay Round negotiations, finally concluded at the end of 1994, developed countries further agreed to reduce tariffs on industrial goods by 40 percent. Their average tariff rate will stand, once the tariff agreements have been fully implemented, at around 3.8 percent; and 99 percent of their industrial-product tariffs will be bound at their new levelsmeaning that, having been reduced as a result of multilateral agreements, they cannot be raised again without further multilateral negotiations. Reforms agreed in agriculture include a 36 percent reduction in export subsidies and an 18 percent reduction in domestic support afforded to agricultural producers. In addition, the level of security for trade in agricultural products has been substantially strengthened, for 100 percent of agricultural product lines are now bound and no non-tariff barriers are permitted for agricultural products, with the exception of measures taken for balance-of-payments purposes.  [2]   Rough estimates by the WTOs economists suggest that the reduction of international trade barriers as a result of the Uruguay Round agreements could produce an increase in world income between US$109 and US$510 billion per year by the time the market access commitments are fully implemented in 2005 (GATT Secretariat,1994, p. 36.). These figures do not take into account the beneficial impact of other results concerning, for example, strengthened trade rules, procedures and institutions, or the market-access commitments and rules for trade in services. Secondly, WTO membership means the effective dismantling of discriminatory barriers that have been specifically directed at certain countries, for instance those erected against China, Russia and the East European countries. The most important benefit in this respect would be the availability to those countries of the same principle of nondiscrimination that WTO member countries normally apply to each other in the conduct of their trade relations, albeit with exceptions permitted under WTO rules. Thirdly, in the context of the general reduction of tariffs as barriers to trade, traders in the acceding country benefit from rules dealing with the trade-distorting effects of many types of hidden non-tariff measures like public subsidies, technical standards, customs-valuation and import-licensing procedures and restrictive policies on foreign direct investment or intellectual property rightsnow comprehensively regulated by transparent rules. The new General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) brings international disciplines to bear on activities in this vital area of trade as well. The importance of effective multilateral rules and disciplines in governing international trade relations increases in direct proportion to the intensification of international competition in the marketplace. For acceding governments, membership also puts at their disposal a strengthened and contractually binding international dispute-settlement mechanism. The importance of this mechanism is self-evident and its link with the need for security and fairness in trade relations is well recognised. Perhaps the most striking aspect of the dispute-settlement mechanism is the fact that the dispute-settlement bodys findings and their implementation cannot be blocked by any member; the mechanism is automatic. Finally, it is increasingly seen that the accession process helps reformist governments resist the pressures of sectional interests opposed to reforms that are being pursued in the long-term interests of economies as a whole. Governments can embark on the reform of expensively protected sectors, like industry and agriculture, and justify their actions as a price required by the WTO in return for the benefits of membership. Why Does Accession Take So Long? Each accession is a negotiation and is thus unique. For the same reasons, no deadlines or time limits are laid down in the accession process. Progress essentially depends on the openness of the applicant governments trade regime and the rapidity with which it can be brought into conformity with WTO obligations. Vietnam and WTO During the initial years of doi moi, Vietnam enjoyed remarkable levels of economic growth: the end of collectivised agriculture gave a substantial boost to the rural economy, while an influx of foreign investment coupled with liberalisation of private sector economic activity brought considerable benefits. By the second half of the 1990s, however, the economy was slowing, partly influenced by wider regional problems after the 1997 Asian crisis, but primarily because of domestic factors. Ari Kokko picks up the argument where Martin Gainsborough left off, asking how far that slowdown reflected a decline in Vietnams commitment to the reform process, and also the extent to which the downturn reflected structural problems rather than temporary setbacks. His answers focus on three key areas: trade policy, state-owned enterprise (SOE) reform, and the position of the private sector. (ADB 2000) On trade policy, Kokko paints a fairly positive picture. Vietnams 2001 Bilateral Trade Agreement with the United States was a major landmark in the direction of eventual World Trade Organisation (WTO) accession, and there is plenty of evidence that Vietnamese exports have been enjoying a sustainable recovery in recent years. This reflects the outward orientation of private sector Vietnamese firms and of multinational corporations with operations in Vietnam. Substantial overseas development aid disbursements and private cash remittances (often transferred by overseas Vietnamese to relatives and business partners in the country) have helped boost Vietnams balance of payments. State enterprise reform is another matter entirely. Like Gainsborough, Kokko insists that the lack of progress here is undeniable; most SOEs are loss-making and have continued to enjoy preferential access to credit, while the bulk of equitisations to date have not affected the largest and most troublesome state en terprises. Kokko notes that the private sector remains underdeveloped, faced with various forms of discrimination and limited access to credit. At the same time, he is more positive than Gainsborough in highlighting certain areas where private sector reform has proceeded quite rapidly. He praises the 1999 Enterprise Law, which has led to the registration of numerous new small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Kokko also singles out support from international donors for private sector capacity-building notably Japans Miyazawa plan, which has provided substantial funding to nurture SME development. Ultimately he suggests that SOEs reform might be tacitly bypassed: future strategies should focus on the development of the private sector while accepting more gradual reform of the SOE sector. He also expresses concern that Vietnam needs a better welfare and safety net infrastructure to protect its citizens from the uncertainties of the market, and to reduce both urban and rural povert y. After the problematic 1979 invasion and occupation of Cambodia, which blighted Vietnams relations with much of the world during the 1980s, the emphasis was now on settling all disputes by negotiation. Ideology was now marginalised, whereas previously it had formed the core of Vietnamese foreign policy: pragmatism prevailed. Vietnam was particularly anxious to find ways of countering Chinese economic and strategic dominance in the region, and this helps explain Vietnamese enthusiasm for building stronger ties with other Southeast Asian countries best seen in the decision to join the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Another crucial juncture was the normalisation of relations with the United States. Within ASEAN, Vietnam has acted as an informal leader for the new entrants of the 1990s (the others were Burma, Cambodia and Laos). Yet the ASEAN summits held in Hanoi in 2001 lacked clear focus; Vietnam seemed to prefer ASEAN to adopt a lower profile, and was uneasy with rec ent moves towards ideas of flexible engagement, constructive intervention or enhanced interaction, which would permit member states to comment critically on developments inside other states. Vietnam was attached to an older model of ASEAN, the so-called ASEAN way, based upon principles of consensus and non-interference a much more comfortable model for a one-party state. Yet Vietnam also sought to use ASEAN membership as a means of pressing its claim for admission to other multilateral bodies such as the WTO, laying itself open to charges of crude pragmatism. In its relations with the rest of the world, Vietnam (like many other states) often wanted things both ways: the benefits of foreign investment without the constraints of playing by international economic rules, or the benefits of ASEAN membership without the pressure to conform to regional norms of behaviour. In a way, this duality resembles other aspects of Vietnams post-doi moi order: Vietnam has persistently sought to take advantage of opportunities presented by globalisation and economic liberalisation, whilst avoiding the associated social and political costs. One consequence of the perceived success of reforms during the early 1990s was that the Vietnamese authorities revised their economic targets for the period from 1991 to 2000. Instead of aiming for a doubling of the countrys GDP over this period, as was originally intended before the Seventh Party Congress in 1991, the target was changed to a doubling of GDP per capita (Socialist Republic of Vietnam [SRV] 1994). Assessing the achievements of the reforms, many foreign observers concurred, concluding, for example, that Vietnam appears well-positioned to become a new East Asian dragon (Irvin 1995:725). However, these impressive achievements could not completely hide some of the structural and systemic weaknesses of the economy. By 1996, donors and foreign observers had highlighted several problems related to the import-substituting trade regime and the role of the state, in particular the continuing reliance on SOEs as the main vehicle of development (Kokko and Zejan 1996; Ljunggren 1996; Mallon 1996; United Nations Development Programme [UNDP] 1996). On trade policy, concerns focused on the distorted incentives provided by the complex, non-transparent and highly restrictive trade regime. The combination of tariffs, quotas, import licensing requirements, foreign exchange controls and various other trade barriers created strong incentives in favour of import substitution in consumer goods and selected heavy industries and a bias against export-oriented production. One paradoxical result was a rapid increase in imports: import-substituting industry in Vietnam, as elsewhere, was heavily dependent upon imported machinery, raw materials and intermediates. Consequently, although exports grew rapidly, import growth was even faster, resulting in growing trade and current account deficits. By 1995, the current account deficit exceeded US $2.6 billion, or 13 percent of GDP. Several problems were imminent. Would it be possible to finance large deficits without endangering future growth and macroeconomic stability? How would Vietnams commitm ents to liberalize trade from around the year 2000 mandated, for example, by Vietnams membership of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and ambition to join the World Trade Organisation (WTO) be realised? Would the promises to reduce tariffs be neutralised by the emergence of strong interest groups benefiting from, and therefore lobbying for, continued protectionism? The most important result in terms of formal policy may be the agreement about a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) between Vietnam and the US, which was signed in July 2000 and ratified in late 2001. The BTA is an important step towards Vietnamese membership in the WTO, and perhaps also a key step in Vietnams continuing economic reforms. Unlike the AFTA agreement, which is based on consensus and does not prescribe severe sanctions against member countries that do not fulfil their commitments, both the BTA and eventual WTO membership are likely to come with stricter conditions, enforcement and sanctions. Moreover, the BTA allows Vietnam to reap some of the benefits (in terms of access to US markets) early on, while the perceived costs (resulting from opening the Vietnamese market to US firms) will come later. It is possible that these two features will strengthen the reform process: it will be difficult to default on reform promises once they have generated thousands of jobs that may be lost if promises are not fulfilled. The continuing increase in exports is another sign of progress in this area. In 1999 and 2000, exports grew at an annual rate of over 20 percent, which was more than four times the rate of domestic demand growth. This shows that an increasing share of the Vietnamese economy is integrated with the international economy, and that there is probably a gradual shift in the balance of power from groups favouring inward-oriented policies to groups relying on contacts with the international economy. In fact, the current Ten-Year Socio-Economic Development Strategy sets up the goal that the export growth rate should be twice as high as the planned 7.5 percent GDP growth rate during the period 2001-10: if the target is achieved, the ratio of exports to GDP will exceed 90 percent by 2010. Other important reforms have been made on the import side. Import tariffs have been reduced gradually, in line with Vietnams AFTA commitments, and the road map for future tariff reductions under the agreement was published in early 2002. The tariff reduction scheme constitutes an important step to facilitate the long-term planning of Vietnamese producers: with a clear time-bound plan in place, there is less scope for interest groups to lobby for extended protection. Most quantitative restrictions have also been removed, and all domestic enterprises are now allowed to import any goods that are not subject to quotas. Yet some problems remain. The tariff structure remains complex. There is great dispersion of tariff rates in the range from zero to 100 percent, with higher rates on import-substituting goods and lower ones on imported inputs. This provides high effective rates of protection for local market-oriented industry. Various administrative measures, such as temporary import bans, have also been used to restrict imports of consumer goods. Summarizing a review on trade policy, CIEM (2002:126) notes that this shows how many policy decisions tend to aim at dealing with the problem on a case by case basis rather than resolving it based on a consistent and overall approach. Foreign trade transactions can also be controlled and restricted by the allocation of foreign exchange. The State Bank of Vietnam controls and approves remittances of foreign currency abroad, and State Bank authorisation is required to borrow foreign currency, to convert dong to dollars, and to open offshore escrow accounts. Exporters are obliged to surrender a large share (at present 40 percent) of their foreign exchange earnings to the State Bank. For a long time, state enterprises and agencies had privileged access to foreign exchange (World Bank 1999b), and it is possible that these preferences still apply. Vietnam has to deal with almost 100 anti-dumping lawsuits and trade disputes each year, in which domestic businesses often come off worst. At the recent G20 Summit in Toronto, as ASEAN Chair, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung called for G20 nations to ensure a sustainable economic recovery and fight against trade protectionism in all forms. He emphasised that Vietnam has to face many disguised protection measures in some developed countries, saying that G20 nations should continue to introduce specific measures to remove barriers to trade and foreign direct investment. These barriers have become obstacles for Vietnamese investors and exporters. To some extent, these barriers, with stricter regulations on food hygiene and safety and anti-dumping, have had a positive impact on Vietnamese businesses who have to increase the quality of their products to compete against foreign rivals. Tran Manh Canh, Deputy General Director of the Hanoi Trade Corporation (Hapro), says that his company exports many products to the Republic of Korea, which requires a high standard of food hygiene and safety. However, Hapro leaders consider these a good opportunity for local businesses to sharpen their competitive edge to penetrate the global market, adds Mr. Canh. In addition to this, trade barriers have also posed numerous difficulties and challenges for Vietnamese businesses who do not have a proper understanding of this issue. Many local businesses find it hard to access information about the trade laws of countries that have commitments with Vietnam. Therefore, clarifying trade barriers and technical standards provided by partners and ensuring transparency in the origin of products are still big challenges for Vietnamese businesses when they export their products to foreign markets. For instance, the European Union (EU) has an anti-dumping tax of 10 percent on Vietnamese leather shoes. The European Bicycle Manufacturers Association (EBMA) has requested a review and extension of the anti-dumping duty on imported Vietnamese bicycles. This affects the Vietnamese bike ind